Biology 11

Mr Carmichael

Name: ____________________ Date: __________ Block: _____

Chapter 3 – Theories to Explain Variation

Read pages 90-104. Use the text, sidebars, and illustrations to answer the questions below:

Chapter 1-2 Acme Guide

Chapter One:

1. What is the abiogenesis and who first formulated the hypothesis?
2. What is the difference between a eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell?
3. What are defining features of a plant cell verses an animal cell?
4. What size objects are used for electron microscope, compound microscope and dissecting scopes?
5. What is the cell theory and what does it not discuss?
6. What structures are found in polysaccharides, lipids and proteins?

Chapter Two

1. If an adaption was found to be “most desirable” then what advantage would that give to the species that acquired it?
2. If a population is adapted to it’s environment then what will happen to successive generations?
3. What three key concepts are found in the definition of adaptation?
4. Mollusks ( like snails ) and reptiles are found in fossil remains, yet soft flatworms were difficult to find. Why?
5. What type of evidence are fossils?
6. How would you estimate how old a fossil is? (2 ways)
7. What are four problems with using fossils for evidence of change?
8. What is the difference between direct and indirect evidence?
9. If you are exploring biochemical evidence between species are you looking exact DNA or a degree of relatedness?
10. How many definitions are there for evolution.
11. What is the difference between a process,a theory and a cause for diversity?
12. How is a species made?
13. What defines what a species is?
14. What is speciation?
15. What is an isolation mechanism?
16. What isolation mechanism cannot be crossed?
17. If a species in one geographic location looked the same as another much further away, this would be an example of what?
18. If one species moved to land and the other stayed in the water, then looking at the two species, you could propose that they would …..?
19. Can you answer any question on page 88-89 and do you know the concepts and vocab listed there?

Chapter Two Notes

Big Ideas in Biology: Change with Time

What is the significance of a change with time? How do we define evolution? What are some patterns of evolution and how can we prove that a change actually occurred. How are species formed or changed with time? These are the primary questions in chapter two.

Evolution is:

• an explanation for the increase in biological diversity.

• a theory that describes how current species are descendants of species of previous generations.

• is a process by which populations show change (gradual or punctual) over several generations.

• a basic definition of evolution is a gradual change of species with time.

First of all, a change within a species of organisms can be noted by a change in structure, habitat or even behaviour. This change can be refered to as an adaption.

When is a population of organisms considered to be adapted to it’s environment?

( this is a great question to remember..)

• Even though the environment may change to a small degree, successive generations of offspring thrive.

• The most desirable adaptations are those which give an organism a advantage to survive.

A way of showing a longer duration of change with time is to examine remnants of previous generations. These remnants can be actual bones or imprints of organisms. This preserved bits of structural or imprinted information are refered to as fossils.

Ø  Fossil records provide the most direct evidence of evolution

• Most fossils are found in sandstone and limestone.
• Problems with fossils:

There are gaps in fossil records

• due to movement of the earth
• no know record of organism in that time period
• one organism eating another at one location and then depositing the remnant at another location

Some specimens are not complete organisms

The process of fossilization requires a specific type of soil

Some specimens are too soft to make a fossil

• for example a shelled organism would make a better imprint than a worm)

With the advent of genetic research and cell biology, there are now new ways to establish indirect proof of a change with time:

1. Embryology:

• Examining the stages of development of an embryo in a variety of species, there appears to be some similarities. This similarity was noted by …who said “     “. Basically, the development of an embryo shows the species phylogenic or family history.

2. Examining structures

There are three terms relative to structures that are useful for comparing species.

This table may be helpful for comparing homologous to analogous structures.

3. Physiology

4. Biochemistry

Pattern of Evolutions:

Convergence

If an organisms develops similar structures due to living in similar environments but they are separated due to being geographically isolated, this is an example of convergent evolution. Basically two distinct species show a similarity, although they are not genetically link. The term converge means to come together.

Divergence

If an organism is separated by geographic barriers, then it will not be able to reproduce with other species. This population will diverge from the original species that it was separated from.

Sources of change

The concept of speciation

The term “speciation” refers to the formation of new species. New species are formed when one population of the same species is separated from another and there is no exhange of genetic information between the two populations.

what can cause speciation?

Isolating mechanisms that may lead to speciation

( remember diagram in class about sea snails)

• geographic
• ecological
• behavioral
• morphology
• genetic

While many of these isolation mechanisms may be crossed, for example a snail may adapt from one ecological environment to another. The one barrier that cannot not be crossed in natural situations is the reproductive or genetic barrier.

Acme Review Guide

Quiz One

Topics

Scientific Method

• How did theories such as “abiogenesis” change or get challenged?
• What is the purpose of having a specific scientific method?
• How does a theory begin?
• Is a hypothesis just a guess or a testable idea?
• Is a theory a fact?
• What is an observation that you measure?
• What is an observation that you could give a subjective description like green?

Basic Microscope

• How do you calculate drawing size?
• How do you calculate actual size?
• What three things occur when when you increase magnification?
• What is field of view?

You are designing a lab

• What is a formal hypothesis?
• What is a dependent and independent variable?
• What is the amount of sample that you should have?
• What is a control and why do we need to consider it?
• What is the difference between data and results?

Types of Biological studies linked to big ideas.

Big Ideas

Structure and function                Study of        morphology, biochemistry

Changes with time                                               evolution

Continuity                                                                genetics

Interactions                                                                        ecology

Homeostasis                                                                       physiology

Unity and Diversity                                                            taxonomy, genetics

What defines what is alive or not?

What are the six types of activities of life?

Can you provide an example?

Which activity could include all the other activities

Levels of organization

Lets start with really small things ( microscopic)

Starting from simple to complex

Cell                (a simple cell either prokaryotic or eukaryotic)

Tissue             (a group of cells working together)

Organ            (a collection of tissues to achieve a process such as digestion)

System          (a group of organs working together to keep homeostasis within an organism)

Species…

Now bigger things that we can observe (macroscopic)

Population   (a group of all the same species)

Community  (a group with two or more species)

Ecosystem   (a combination of organisms with non living factors like an aquarium)

Biome: A combination of ecosystems within a larger portion of the earth based both on climate and geography.

Chemicals of life

There are many elements yet what is the significance of

CHNOPS?

We all need water and we all respire carbon dioxide, yet they are both inorganic, why?

So here is a question..

How do you suppose our own ideas or beliefs could affect making a formal hypothesis?

For example..

If a tiger charges into a classroom then what could occur?

What beliefs could affect how the hypothesis ends?

Chapter One/Two Notes:

• Big Ideas in Biology

1. Unity and Diversity
2. Changes with time
3. Structure and Function

Review:

In chapter one, we attempt to observe and define some of the attributes of life. We note that all activities of life arise from living things. Through experimentation and the invention of the microscope, we can now theorize that all living things are composed of cells. Therefore; as basic units in biology we can state that cells are the basic unit of life and that there can be as many as six different activities of life observed by all living things. We also noted that in the subcellular level, cells are composed of molecules and that these molecules help regulate and continue the activities of life. We could say that we have outlined some of the parameters of what links all living things together. Therefor exploring part of one of the big ideas in biology, which is Unity and Diversity. Put simply there are several factors, including cellular and molecular structures and activities, which link all living things based upon cellular and molecular activities.

In this next chapter we are going to explore, the other half of this idea, that idea of diversity.

Developing an idea:

Idea Number One: Activities of Life and Adaptation

From the previous chapter, we noted that one of the activities of life is the ability to adapt.

Adaptations put simply is the ability to respond to changes in or around an organism. These changes allow the organism to improve chances of survival. This ability can be inherited and increase an organisms chance of survival.

Idea Number Two: Levels of organization

The next question is:

“ If organism can be so similar, then how do or how did they become so different?” To explain this change we have yet another theory classified under the concept of evolution. Evolution can be thought of as the change of organism over a period of time. This is yet another big idea in biology “ Changes with time”.

Some questions to ponder:

1. If organisms change with time, how can that change be shown?

• Is the change shown similarity or diversity?
• Does the change shown directly or indirectly?

2. If organism change with time, what is the mechanism that creates that change?

Types of proof in regards to evolution

Like the cell theory, we need proof or evidence to create a theory:

For the theory of evolution we have two types of proof

1. Direct Evidence

• fossils offer direct evidence of pathway, or evolutionary history. This pathway can be considered to be a history to show origins of species and how they changed. This history can be used to explain organisms phylogenic or evolutionary history.
• fossils are created due to preserved hard parts of organisms. Fossils can either be original body parts or imprints preserved or “ petrified” with mineral matter.
• fossils can be used to show geological time scales
• fossils can be used to show two types of evolution, called divergent and convergent evolution.

• Divergent Evolution:

process where original organisms evolve into variety of distinct species. Each new population then becomes a new distinct species. Fossil histories can have gaps and so biologist have to hypothesis as to original species, which lead to a variety of species. Put simply a primitive ancestor has the potential to adapt to a variety of environments through structural changes, behavioral change or changes in reproduction. Divergent evolution often notes changes in structures of fossils to create “ family trees” for organisms.

• Convergent Evolution:

process of development of similar forms from unrelated species due to adaptation to similar environment. Best example: Marsupials in Australia. Another definition: similar forms in geographically different areas responding to similar environments.

Comparing Divergence to Convergence:

convergent evolution occurs when two dissimilar species change in response to similar environmental conditions and show development of similar characteristics.

Example: Kangaroo and the deer

similarities: in location of eyes, type of teeth, long ears and herd behavior

dissimilarity: marsupial verses placental ancestors

Divergent evolution occurs when members within a singes species change in response to a new and different environmental condition, and each population develops into dissimilar characteristics.

Example: Primate ancestral groups evolving into specific of apes

2. Indirect Evidence

Often instead of looking at fossils, biologist can look at current species and use other methods to hypothesis their family background. If we assume that adaptation is an inherited trait, then we can look at patterns of inheritance through embryological , structural, physiological or biochemical evidence.

( remember: How many and what are the types of indirect proof ?)

• Embryology:

Each organism starts off as a simple cell. If it divides into a multicellular organism the cells divide and create unique structures. An embryo is the prebirth stage of living organism. Embryology is the study of organisms in their earliest stages of development. In the 1800’s it was noted that several organisms show similarities in their embryonic development. This observation brought forth the statement and a theory of recapitulation:

“ Ontogeny recapitulates Phylogeny”

In simple terms, each organism shows their evolutionary history ( phylogeny) in its own embryonic development ( ontogeny).

• Homologous and Analogous Structures:

                     Homologous Structures:

                     Often organisms will have similar structures but these structures serve different functions. This is an example of an indirect proof of divergent evolution. Key thing to remember. Similar structure but different function.

Analogous Structures:

                     Often organisms will show structures that provide the same function but have differences in structure. Key point, similarity in function but not in structure. This can also be used as indirect proof of divergent evolution.

Vestigial Structures:

                   Sometimes creatures have structures that serve no apparent function, like hips on snakes or a human appendix. A structure with no apparent function is said to be vestigial.

• Physiological Evidence:

Physiology:

                   How organs within an organism work is the study of physiology. For example observing and learning how organisms excrete waste, would be examining a physiological phenomenon. Tissues and chemical reactions within organs can be regulated by specific

Biology 11 Lesson Outline                                      Date July 27 th

Biology 11

Name: _________________________ Date: __________ Block: _____

Phylum Echinodermata

(Greek: echinos = “spiny”, derma = “skin”)

Pages 340-341

I Background:

• The Phylum Echinodermata includes 6 Subphyla that include a total of 18 Classes. Some of these Subphyla and Classes include:
  • Subphylum: _______________ (Includes 4 Classes)
    • Class: _______________– Brittle Stars
    • Class: _______________ – Sea Stars and Starfish
  • Subphylum: _______________ (Includes 2 Classes)

• Class: _______________ – Sea Urchins and Sand Dollars
• Class: _______________ – Sea Cucumbers

• Echinoderms are completely _______________ and only live on the ocean floor

DID YOU KNOW!!!: The development of Echinoderms after the egg stage is so similar to that of the Chordata, as well as being unique to only those two Phyla that it is believed that the Chordates (Vertebrates) and the Echinoderms share a common ancestor!!!

II Body Plan/Structure:

• Echinoderms have _______________symmetry, but it is believed that they evolved from a bilaterally symmetrical ancestor
• Most members of the Phyla are _______________ with _______________similar body segments arrayed around a central core
• Echinoderms contain the three true germ layers:
  • ________________________________
  • ________________________________
  • ________________________________

• Defining Characteristics of Echinoderms

1. All Echinoderms have an _______________ made of _______________, covered with a layer of _______________
2. Echinoderms possess a _______________

• This is a system of fluid-filled _______________ that acts like a hydraulic pressure system
• The system is used for _______________, _______________ and _______________
• Water is drawn into the water vascular system through a structure called a _______________.
• The water travels down a structure called a _______________ until it reaches the circular _______________ that encircles the central core
• The water is passed down to each _______________ through the _______________ where it enters the _______________ (Small bulbs)
• The _______________ are connected to little sucker-like feet called _______________. The _______________and the _______________ are called _______________

III. Feeding:

• Most echinoderms have a very _______________ digestive system
• There is a _______________ that is connected to a _______________ that is connected to an _______________
• The stomach extends into each arm where digestive juices are released to digest the food
• undigestible food is released out the anus

DID YOU KNOW!!!: Sea Stars can be deadly carnivores. They will mount their prey

(usually an unsuspecting Bivalve) and wrap their arms around it until the opening of the Bivalve is facing the mouth of the Sea Star. From here the Sea Star pulls the Bivalve open using its sticky tube feet and powerful arms. It then everts its stomach into the Bivalve and digests the Bivalve inside its own protective shell. The Sea Star then pulls its stomach back inside to digest the organic material!!!

DID YOU KNOW!!!: Sea Urchins scrape food off of hard surfaces using a special structure called Aristotle’s Lantern. Who knows, if you study hard and become a famous Philosopher and Biologist you could name an anatomical structure after yourself too!!!

1. Respiration:

• The thin-walled _______________allow for simple _______________ to occur
• Some Echinoderms contain special _______________on their epidermis that aid in respiration

1. Internal Transport:

• The Water Vascular System is responsible for transporting _______________, _______________ and _______________ throughout the body

1. Excretion:

• The Water Vascular System is used to release metabolic wastes into the surroundings. The wastes are released from the _______________

VII. Response:

• In general Echinoderms have a very _______________ nervous system
• They have a central _______________ that surrounds the stomach. The central nerve ring connects to _______________ that extend into and control each arm

• They can generally only respond to:
  • _______________ – Using special structures found on the epidermis
  • _______________– Some have very very simple _______________ on the tips of their arms

VIII. Movement:

• Echinoderms are either _______________ or very slow moving
• They crawl using the Water Vascular System to pump water in and out of their _______________

DID YOU KNOW!!!: The ferocious Sunflower Star is by far the fastest moving Echinoderm and can move at speeds up to 1 meter per minute!!!

1. Reproduction:

• The Echinoderms have separate _______________ and _______________ organisms
• The _______________ of most Echinoderms take up the entire coelom
• The _______________ and _______________ are simply released into the water by both sexes
• Once the egg has been fertilized it matures into a _______________symmetrical larvae which eventually matures into the adult

Echinoderms also have the ability to _______________ body parts after they have been damaged or removed